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Research Themes

Executive Control

Executive control, also referred to as cognitive control or executive function, refers to a wide range of higher-order cognitive abilities essential for optimal human functioning (Diamond, 2013; Zelazo, 2020). These functions include but are not limited to (1) working memory: the ability to actively maintain, manipulate, update, and monitor temporary information in the mind; (2) inhibitory control: the ability to suppress inappropriate dominant responses and filter distractor interference; (3) shifting: the ability to flexibly change one’s thought and behavior to another in adaptation to changing environmental demands; and (4) emotional control, the ability to modulate or control one’s emotional responses (Friedman & Miyake, 2017; Roth et al., 2013). Longitudinal studies that tracked groups of children and adolescents over time have shown that higher levels of executive functions early in life significantly predict a diversity of future outcomes, including better academic performance (Spiegel et al., 2021) and fewer externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems (Yang et al., 2022). Those that tracked groups of middle-aged and older adults over time have also shown that higher levels of executive functions, particularly cognitive flexibility, predict better everyday functions (Tomaszewski Farias, et al., 2009) and lower dementia risks (Payton et al., 2022) later in life.

Due to the importance of executive control across domains at different developmental stages, our team strives to perform high-quality behavioral and brain research with four interrelated themes: 

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Mechanisms of Executive Control

Development of Executive Control

1. Mechanisms of Executive Control

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Executive functions and cognitive control are illusive to define, and there exist various conceptual frameworks of executive control. Psychologists and neuroscientists have suggested that executive functions consist of multiple overlapping yet distinct components (Friedman & Miyake, 2017), and that a distinction can be made between executive functions demonstrated in the presence or absence of motivation and emotional salience (i.e., cool vs. hot EF; Zelazo, 2020). Others have emphasized the temporal dynamics of cognitive control, making a distinction between control processes activated before or after the emergence of demand (i.e., proactive vs. reactive mode of control; Braver, 2012), or have focused on the maintenance of goal representations and stability-flexibility tradeoffs in control (Mayr & Grätz, 2024). Our team is presently conducting research to integrate these perspectives, resolve dilemmas, and unravel the neurobiological mechanisms underlying different control processes.

Selected publications:

  1. Yeung, M. K., Wan, J. C., Chan, M. M., Cheung, S. H., Sze, S. C., & Siu, W. W. (2024). Effects of motivation and emotional distraction on executive functions. BMC Psychology, 12, 188. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01695-9
     

  2. Yeung, M. K. (2023). Context-specific effects of threatening faces on alerting, orienting, and executive control: An fNIRS study. Heliyon, 9(5), E15995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15995
     

  3. Yeung, M. K. (2022). Frontal cortical activation during emotional and non-emotional verbal fluency tests. Scientific Reports, 12, 8497. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-12559-w
     

  4. Yeung, M. K., Tsuchida, A., & Fellows, L. K. (2021). Causal prefrontal contributions to stop-signal task performance in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 33(9), 1784-1797. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01652

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2. Development of Executive Control

Executive functions undergo changes throughout the lifespan. Compared with other cognitive functions, such as perception, most executive functions show protracted development, continuing to improve throughout childhood and adolescence and reaching peak performance at around 25 years. They are, however, vulnerable to decline with age during adulthood. Due to the multifaceted nature of executive functions, our team is actively conducting studies to (1) understand age differences in different executive functions; (2) identify factors that may have a significant impact on these age differences; and (3) understand the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the change in control performance over time. The knowledge may eventually help to inform a “growth chart” that facilitates the evaluation of executive control skills at different developmental stages.

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Selected publications:

  1. Yeung, M. K. (2024). Metamemory and executive function mediate the age-related decline in memory. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 30(5), 479-488. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617723011451
     

  2. Yeung, M. K. (2023). Effects of age, gender, and education on task performance and frontal cortex activation during emotional and non-emotional verbal fluency tests. Brain and Language, 245, 105325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2023.105325
     

  3. Yeung, M. K., Lee., T. L., & Chan, A. S. (2020). Neurocognitive development of flanker and Stroop interference control: a near-infrared spectroscopy study. Brain and Cognition, 143, 105585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105585

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3. Executive control and mental health

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Research has consistently identified executive control impairment across mental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder and mood and anxiety disorders. As such, there has been increasing adoption of a transdiagnostic approach to understand executive control and mental health or psychopathology. Despite immense effort, outstanding questions remain regarding (1) whether all executive functions are similarly or differentially affected by different mental disorders; (2) whether individuals who exhibit increased levels of psychopathological symptoms but yet do not meet diagnostic criteria (i.e., subclinical symptoms) also lack executive control; and (3) factors that may influence executive control in individuals struggling with mental health issues. Our team is actively conducting behavioral and neuroscience research to address these knowledge gaps, such that we can develop more effective neuroscience and non-neuroscience approaches to enhance executive control for different mental health conditions.

Selected publications:

  1. Yeung, M. K., Bai, J., & Mak, K. (in press). Longitudinal changes in executive function in autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Autism Research. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.3196
     

  2. Yeung, M. K., Lee., T. L., & Chan, A. S. (2021). Negative mood is associated with decreased prefrontal cortex functioning during working memory in young adults. Psychophysiology, 58(6), e13802. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13802
     

  3. Yeung, M. K., & Chan, A. S. (2020). Executive function, motivation, and emotion recognition in high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 105, 103730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103730
     

  4. Yeung, M. K., Lee, T. L., & Chan, A. S. (2019). Frontal lobe dysfunction underlies the differential word retrieval impairment in adolescents with high-functioning autism. Autism Research, 12(4), 600-613. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2082

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4. Enhancement of Executive Control

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Executive control is important across various domains of life. For example, it is predictive of future academic performance (Spiegel et al., 2021) and mental health (Yang et al., 2022) in children and adolescents, as well as everyday functions (Tomaszewski Farias, et al., 2009) and protection from dementia (Payton et al., 2022) in older adults. In addition, at the population level, decreased executive control has been found across mental health conditions and may underlie the core clinical symptoms (e.g., restricted and stereotyped behaviors in autism spectrum disorder). Though varied across individuals and populations, the brain is now known to possess the ability to change and adapt due to experience. Accordingly, our laboratory is actively developing novel training programs of executive control that involve integration of modalities and application of artificial intelligence, including neurofeedback and home-based computerized training. Our team is currently evaluating the efficacy of these training programs for enhancing executive functions in (autistic) children and adolescents, as well as in older adults with mood or anxiety symptoms.

References

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  1. Braver, T. S. (2012). The variable nature of cognitive control: a dual mechanisms framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(2), 106-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.12.010
     

  2. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135-168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
     

  3. Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023
     

  4. Mayr, U., & Grätz, D. (2024). Does cognitive control have a general stability/flexibility tradeoff problem?. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 57, 101389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2024.101389
     

  5. Payton, N. M., Marseglia, A., Grande, G., Fratiglioni, L., Kivipelto, M., Bäckman, L., & Laukka, E. J. (2023). Trajectories of cognitive decline and dementia development: A 12‐year longitudinal study. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 19(3), 857-867. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12704
     

  6. Roth, R. M., Isquith, P. K., & Gioia, G. A. (2013). Assessment of executive functioning using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). In Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 301-331). New York, NY: Springer New York.
     

  7. Spiegel, J. A., Goodrich, J. M., Morris, B. M., Osborne, C. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2021). Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(4), 329. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000322
     

  8. Tomaszewski Farias, S., Cahn-Weiner, D. A., Harvey, D. J., Reed, B. R., Mungas, D., Kramer, J. H., & Chui, H. (2009). Longitudinal changes in memory and executive functioning are associated with longitudinal change in instrumental activities of daily living in older adults. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 23(3), 446-461. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040802360558
     

  9. Yang, Y., Shields, G. S., Zhang, Y., Wu, H., Chen, H., & Romer, A. L. (2022). Child executive function and future externalizing and internalizing problems: A meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 97, 102194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102194
     

  10. Zelazo, P. D. (2020). Executive function and psychopathology: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 16(1), 431-454. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072319-024242

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